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A variable provides us with named storage that our programs can manipulate. Each variable in C++ has a specific type, which determines the size and layout of the variable's memory; the range of values that can be stored within that memory; and the set of operations that can be applied to the variable.
The name of a variable can be composed of letters, digits, and the underscore character. It must begin with either a letter or an underscore. Upper and lowercase letters are distinct because C++ is case-sensitive â
There are following basic types of variable in C++ as explained in last chapter â
C++ also allows to define various other types of variables, which we will cover in subsequent chapters like Enumeration, Pointer, Array, Reference, Data structures, and Classes.
Following section will cover how to define, declare and use various types of variables.
Variable Definition in C++
A variable definition tells the compiler where and how much storage to create for the variable. A variable definition specifies a data type, and contains a list of one or more variables of that type as follows â
Here, type must be a valid C++ data type including char, w_char, int, float, double, bool or any user-defined object, etc., and variable_list may consist of one or more identifier names separated by commas. Some valid declarations are shown here â
The line int i, j, k; both declares and defines the variables i, j and k; which instructs the compiler to create variables named i, j and k of type int.
Variables can be initialized (assigned an initial value) in their declaration. The initializer consists of an equal sign followed by a constant expression as follows â
Some examples are â
For definition without an initializer: variables with static storage duration are implicitly initialized with NULL (all bytes have the value 0); the initial value of all other variables is undefined.
Variable Declaration in C++
A variable declaration provides assurance to the compiler that there is one variable existing with the given type and name so that compiler proceed for further compilation without needing complete detail about the variable. A variable declaration has its meaning at the time of compilation only, compiler needs actual variable definition at the time of linking of the program.
A variable declaration is useful when you are using multiple files and you define your variable in one of the files which will be available at the time of linking of the program. You will use extern keyword to declare a variable at any place. Though you can declare a variable multiple times in your C++ program, but it can be defined only once in a file, a function or a block of code.
Example
Try the following example where a variable has been declared at the top, but it has been defined inside the main function â
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result â
Same concept applies on function declaration where you provide a function name at the time of its declaration and its actual definition can be given anywhere else. For example â
Lvalues and Rvalues
There are two kinds of expressions in C++ â
Variables are lvalues and so may appear on the left-hand side of an assignment. Numeric literals are rvalues and so may not be assigned and can not appear on the left-hand side. Following is a valid statement â
But the following is not a valid statement and would generate compile-time error â
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Important
This tutorial uses C++/CX. Microsoft has released C++/WinRT: an entirely standard modern C++17 language projection for Windows Runtime (WinRT) APIs. For more information on this language, please see C++/WinRT.
With Microsoft Visual Studio, you can use C++/CX to develop an app that runs on Windows 10 with a UI that's defined in Extensible Application Markup Language (XAML).
Note
This tutorial uses Visual Studio Community 2019. If you are using a different version of Visual Studio, it may look a little different for you.
Before you start
Comparing C++ desktop apps to Windows apps
If you're coming from a background in Windows desktop programming in C++, you'll probably find that some aspects of writing apps for the UWP are familiar, but other aspects require some learning.
What's the same?
What's new?
Hello World Store app in C++/CX
Our first app is a 'Hello World' that demonstrates some basic features of interactivity, layout, and styles. We'll create an app from the Windows Universal app project template. If you've developed apps for Windows 8.1 and Windows Phone 8.1 before, you might remember that you had to have three projects in Visual Studio, one for the Windows app, one for the phone app, and another with shared code. The Windows 10 Universal Windows Platform (UWP) makes it possible to have just one project, which runs on all devices, including desktop and laptop computers running Windows 10, devices such as tablets, mobile phones, VR devices and so on.
We'll start with the basics:
First, create a solution in Visual Studio
Note
If this is the first time you have used Visual Studio, you might see a Settings dialog asking you to enable Developer mode. Developer mode is a special setting that enables certain features, such as permission to run apps directly, rather than only from the Store. For more information, please read Enable your device for development. To continue with this guide, select Developer mode, click Yes, and close the dialog.
Your project files are created.
Before we go on, let's look at what's in the solution.
About the project files
Every .xaml file in a project folder has a corresponding .xaml.h file and .xaml.cpp file in the same folder and a .g file and a .g.hpp file in the Generated Files folder, which is on disk but not part of the project. You modify the XAML files to create UI elements and connect them to data sources (DataBinding). You modify the .h and .cpp files to add custom logic for event handlers. The auto-generated files represent the transformation of the XAML markup into C++/CX. Don't modify these files, but you can study them to better understand how the code-behind works. Basically, the generated file contains a partial class definition for a XAML root element; this class is the same class that you modify in the *.xaml.h and .cpp files. The generated files declare the XAML UI child elements as class members so that you can reference them in the code you write. At build time, the generated code and your code are merged into a complete class definition and then compiled.
Let's look first at the project files.
A first look at the code
If you examine the code in App.xaml.h, App.xaml.cpp in the shared project, you'll notice that it's mostly C++ code that looks familiar. However, some syntax elements might not be as familiar if you are new to Windows Runtime apps, or you've worked with C++/CLI. Here are the most common non-standard syntax elements you'll see in C++/CX:
Ref classes
Almost all Windows Runtime classes, which includes all the types in the Windows API--XAML controls, the pages in your app, the App class itself, all device and network objects, all container types--are declared as a ref class. (A few Windows types are value class or value struct). A ref class is consumable from any language. In C++/CX, the lifetime of these types is governed by automatic reference counting (not garbage collection) so that you never explicitly delete these objects. You can create your own ref classes as well.
All Windows Runtime types must be declared within a namespace and unlike in ISO C++ the types themselves have an accessibility modifier. The public modifier makes the class visible to Windows Runtime components outside the namespace. The sealed keyword means the class cannot serve as a base class. Almost all ref classes are sealed; class inheritance is not broadly used because Javascript does not understand it.
ref new and ^ (hats)
You declare a variable of a ref class by using the ^ (hat) operator, and you instantiate the object with the ref new keyword. Thereafter you access the object's instance methods with the -> operator just like a C++ pointer. Static methods are accessed with the :: operator just as in ISO C++.
In the following code, we use the fully qualified name to instantiate an object, and use the -> operator to call an instance method.
Typically, in a .cpp file we would add a
using namespace Windows::UI::Xaml::Media::Imaging directive and the auto keyword, so that the same code would look like this:
Properties
A ref class can have properties, which, just as in managed languages, are special member functions that appear as fields to consuming code.
Delegates
Just as in managed languages, a delegate is a reference type that encapsulates a function with a specific signature. They are most often used with events and event handlers
Adding content to the app
Let's add some content to the app.
Step 1: Modify your start page
The default splash screen appears first. It has an imageâAssetsSplashScreen.scale-100.pngâand a background color that are specified in the app's manifest file. To learn how to customize the splash screen, see Adding a splash screen.
When the splash screen disappears, your app appears. It displays the main page of the App.
It doesn't do muchâyetâbut congratulations, you've built your first Universal Windows Platform app!
To stop debugging and close the app, return to Visual Studio and press Shift+F5.
For more information, see Run a Store app from Visual Studio.
In the app, you can type in the TextBox, but clicking the Button doesn't do anything. In later steps, you create an event handler for the button's Click event, which displays a personalized greeting.
Step 2: Create an event handler
At the same time, in MainPage.xaml, the XAML for the Button is updated to declare the Click event handler, like this:
You could also have simply added this to the xaml code manually, which can be helpful if the designer doesn't load. If you enter this manually, type 'Click' and then let IntelliSense pop up the option to add a new event handler. That way, Visual Studio creates the necessary method declaration and stub.
The designer fails to load if an unhandled exception occurs during rendering. Rendering in the designer involves running a design-time version of the page. It can be helpful to disable running user code. You can do this by changing the setting in the Tools, Options dialog box. Under XAML Designer, uncheck Run project code in XAML designer (if supported).
Step 3: Style the start pageChoosing a theme
It's easy to customize the look and feel of your app. By default, your app uses resources that have a light style. The system resources also include a light theme. Let's try it out and see what it looks like.
To switch to the dark theme
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Which theme should you use? Whichever one you want. Here's our take: for apps that mostly display images or video, we recommend the dark theme; for apps that contain a lot of text, we recommend the light theme. If you're using a custom color scheme, use the theme that goes best with your app's look and feel. In the rest of this tutorial, we use the Light theme in screenshots.
Note The theme is applied when the app is started and can't be changed while the app is running.
Using system styles
Right now, in the Windows app the text is very small and difficult to read. Let's fix that by applying a system style.
To change the style of an element
Step 4: Adapt the UI to different window sizes
Now we'll make the UI adapt to different screen sizes so it looks good on mobile devices. To do this, you add a VisualStateManager and set properties that are applied for different visual states.
To adjust the UI layout
If you've used a VisualStateManager in previous versions of XAML, you might notice that the XAML here uses a simplified syntax.
The VisualState named
wideState has an AdaptiveTrigger with its MinWindowWidth property set to 641. This means that the state is to be applied only when the window width is not less than the minimum of 641 DIPs. You don't define any Setter objects for this state, so it uses the layout properties you defined in the XAML for the page content.
The second VisualState,
narrowState , has an AdaptiveTrigger with its MinWindowWidth property set to 0. This state is applied when the window width is greater than 0, but less than 641 DIPs. (At 641 DIPs, the wideState is applied.) In this state, you do define some Setter objects to change the layout properties of controls in the UI:
SummaryBlack Bar In Dev C Pdf
Congratulations, you've completed the first tutorial! It taught how to add content to Windows Universal apps, how to add interactivity to them, and how to change their appearance.
Next stepsBlack Bar In Dev C Download
If you have a Windows Universal app project that targets Windows 8.1 and/or Windows Phone 8.1, you can port it to Windows 10. There is no automatic process for this, but you can do it manually. Start with a new Windows Universal project to get the latest project system structure and manifest files, copy your code files into the project's directory structure, add the items to your project, and rewrite your XAML using the VisualStateManager according to the guidance in this topic. For more information, see Porting a Windows Runtime 8 project to a Universal Windows Platform (UWP) project and Porting to the Universal Windows Platform (C++).
Black Bar In Dev C Youtube
If you have existing C++ code that you want to integrate with a UWP app, such as to create a new UWP UI for an existing application, see How to: Use existing C++ code in a Universal Windows project.
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